Publications, Data, and Statistics

General

• Coffey CM, Collier SA, Gleason ME, Yoder JS, Kirk MD, Richardson AM, Fullerton KE, Benedict KM. Evolving epidemiology of reported giardiasis cases in the United States, 1995–2016. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2020 Feb 12. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa128external icon
• Huang DB, White AC. An updated review on Cryptosporidium and Giardia.external icon Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2006;35(2):291-314, viii.
• Farthing MJ. Giardia comes of age: progress in epidemiology, immunology and chemotherapy. pdf icon[PDF – 4 pages]external icon J Antimicrob Chemother. 1992;30(5):563-6..
• Wolfe MS. Giardiasis.external icon Clin Microbiol Rev. 1992;5(1):93-100.
• Farthing MJ. Giardiasis.external icon Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 1996;25(3):493-515.
• Thompson RC. Giardiasis as a re-emerging infectious disease and its zoonotic potential.external icon Int J Parasitol. 2000;30(12-13):1259-67.
• Hill DR. Giardia lamblia. In: Gillespie SH, Pearson RD, eds. Principles and practice of clinical parasitology. Chisester, England: Joan Wiley & Sons; 2001

Surveillance Summaries

• Giardiasis Summary Reports
• Conners EE, Miller AD, Balachandran N, Robinson BM, Benedict KM. Giardiasis Outbreaks — United States, 2012–2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2021;70:304–307. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7009a2external icon
• Giardiasis NNDSS Summary Report for 2018
• Painter JE, Gargano JW, Collier SA, Yoder JS. Giardiasis surveillance — United States, 2011-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(SS03):15-25.
• Yoder, JS, Gargano, JW, Wallace RM, Beach MJ. Giardiasis surveillance — United States, 2009–2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012;61(SS05):13-23.
• Yoder JS, Harral C, Beach MJ. Giardiasis surveillance — United States, 2006-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59(6):15-25.
• Yoder JS, Beach MJ. Giardiasis surveillance — United States, 2003-2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2007; 56(SS07);11-18.
• Hlavsa MC, Watson JC, Beach MJ. Giardiasis surveillance — United States, 1998-2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005; 54(SS01);9-16.
• Furness BW, Beach MJ, Roberts, JM. Giardiasis surveillance — United States, 1992-1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2000; 49(SS07);1-13.

Sources of Infection and Risk Factors

• Seabolt MH, Konstantinidis KT, Roellig DM. Hidden Diversity within Common Protozoan Parasites Revealed by a Novel Genomotyping Schemeexternal icon. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2021 Jan 4:AEM.02275-20.
• Botero-Garces JH, Garcia-Montoya GM, Grisales-Patino D, Aguirre-Acevedo DC, Alvarez-Uribe MC. Giardia intestinalis and nutritional status in children participating in the complementary nutrition program, Antioquia, Colombia, May to October 2006.external icon Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2009;51(3):155-62.
• Naumova EN, Jagai JS, Matyas B, DeMaria A, Jr., MacNeill IB, Griffiths JK. Seasonality in six enterically transmitted diseases and ambient temperature.external icon Epidemiol Infect. 2007;135(2):281-92.
• Erickson MC, Ortega YR. Inactivation of protozoan parasites in food, water, and environmental systems.external icon J Food Prot. 2006;69:2786–808.
• Stuart JM, Orr HJ, Warburton FG, Jeyakanth S, Pugh C, Morris I, Sarangi J, Nichols G. Risk factors for sporadic giardiasis: a case-control study in southwestern England. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9(2):229-33.
• Greig JD, Michel P, Wilson JB, Lammerding AM, Majowicz SE, Stratton J, Aramini JJ, Meyers RK, Middleton D, McEwen SA. A descriptive analysis of giardiasis cases reported in Ontario, 1990-1998.external icon Can J Public Health. 2001;92(5):361-5.
• Hoque ME, Hope VT, Scragg R, Kjellstrom T, Lay-Yee R. Nappy handling and risk of giardiasis.external icon Lancet. 2001;357(9261):1017-18.
• Newman RD, Moore SR, Lima AA, Nataro JP, Guerrant RL, Sears CL. A longitudinal study of Giardia lamblia infection in north-east Brazilian children.external icon Trop Med Int Health. 2001;6(8):624-34.
• Welch TP. Risk of giardiasis from consumption of wilderness water in North America: a systematic review of epidemiologic data.external icon Int J Infect Dis. 2000;4(2):100-3.
• Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.external icon Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47.
• Olson ME, Goh J, Phillips M, Guselle N, McAllister TA. Giardiacyst and Cryptosporidium oocyst survival in water, soil, and cattle feces.external icon J Environ Qual. 1999;28(6):1991-1996.
• Pakianathan MR, McMillan A. Intestinal protozoa in homosexual men in Edinburgh.external icon Int J STD AIDS. 1999;10(12):780-4.
• Esfandiari A, Swartz J, Teklehaimanot S. Clustering of giardiosis among AIDS patients in Los Angeles County.external icon Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand). 1997;43(7):1077-83.
• Kappus KD, Lundgren RG, Jr., Juranek DD, Roberts JM, Spencer HC. Intestinal parasitism in the United States: update on a continuing problem.external icon Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1994;50(6):705-13.
• Birkhead G, Vogt RL. Epidemiologic surveillance for endemic Giardia lamblia infection in Vermont. The roles of waterborne and person-to-person transmission.external icon 1989;129(4):762-8.
• DeRegnier DP, Cole L, Schupp DG, Erlandsen SL. Viability of Giardiacysts suspended in lake, river, and tap water.external icon Appl Environ Microbiol. 1989;55(5):1223.
• Danciger M, Lopez M. Numbers of Giardia in the feces of infected childrenexternal icon Am J Trop Med Hyg.1975;24(2):237-42.
• Rendtorff RC. The experimental transmission of human intestinal protozoan parasites. II. Giardia lamblia cysts given in capsules pdf icon[PDF – 12 pages]external icon Am J Hyg. 1954;59(2):209-20.

Illness and Symptoms

• Robertson LJ, Hanevik K, Escobedo AA, Morch K, Langeland N. Giardiasis–why do the symptoms sometimes never stop?external icon Trends Parasitol. 2010;26(2):75-82.
• Nash TE, Herrington DA, Losonsky GA, Levine MM. Experimental human infections with Giardia lamblia.external icon J Infect Dis. 1987;156(6):974-84.

Diagnosis and Detection

• Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Procedures for the recovery and identification of parasites from the intestinal tract; approved guideline. CLSI document M28-A2. 2nd ed. Wayne, PA: Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute; 2005.
• Johnston SP, Ballard MM, Beach MJ, Causer L, Wilkins PP. Evaluation of three commercial assays for detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium organisms in fecal specimensexternal icon. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(2):623-6.
• Garcia LS, Shimizu RY, Novak S, Carroll M, Chan F. Commercial assay for detection of Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum antigens in human fecal specimens by rapid solid-phase qualitative immunochromatographyexternal icon. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:209–212.

Treatment

• Solaymani-Mohammadi S, Genkinger JM, Loffredo CA, Singer SM. A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of albendazole compared with metronidazole as treatments for infections with Giardia duodenalis.external icon PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010;4(5):e682.
• Drugs for Parasitic Infections: The Medical Letter; 2010.
• Muller J, Ley S, Felger I, Hemphill A, Muller N. Identification of differentially expressed genes in a Giardia lamblia WB C6 clone resistant to nitazoxanide and metronidazole.external icon J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;62(1):72-82.
• Escobedo AA, Cimerman S. Giardiasis: a pharmacotherapy review.external icon Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2007;8(12):1885-1902.
• Upcroft JA, Upcroft P. Drug resistance and Giardia.external icon Parasitol Today. 1993;9(5):187-90.
• Sullivan PB, Marsh MN, Phillips MB, Dewit O, Neale G, Cevallos AM, Yamson P, Farthing MJ. Prevalence and treatment of giardiasis in chronic diarrhoea and malnutrition.external icon Arch Dis Child. 1991;66(3):304-6.
• Gardner TB, Hill DR. Treatment of giardiasis.external icon Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001;14(1):114-28.

Complications

• Berkman DS, Lescano AG, Gilman RH, Lopez SL, Black MM. Effects of stunting, diarrhoeal disease, and parasitic infection during infancy on cognition in late childhood: a follow-up study.external icon Lancet. 2002;359(9306):564-71.
• Tupchong M, Simor A, Dewar C. Beaver fever–a rare cause of reactive arthritis.external icon J Rheumatol. 2001;28(3):683.
• Borman P, Seckin U, Ozoran K. Beaver fever–a rare cause of reactive arthritis.external icon J Rheumatol. 2001;28(3):683.
• Farthing MJ, Mata L, Urrutia JJ, Kronmal RA. Natural history of Giardia infection of infants and children in rural Guatemala and its impact on physical growth.external icon Am J Clin Nutr. 1986;43(3):395-405.
• Solomons NW. Giardiasis: nutritional implications.external icon Rev Infect Dis. 1982;4(4):859-69.
• Notis WM. Giardiasis and vitamin B 12 malabsorption.external icon Gastroenterology. 1972;63(6):1085.

Animals

• The Merck Veterinary Manual. Overview of giardiasis.external icon United States: Merck; 2013.
• Feng Y, Xiao L. Zoonotic potential and molecular epidemiology of Giardia species and giardiasis.external icon Clin Microbiol Rev. 2011;24(1):110-40.
• Fletcher R, Deplazes P, Schnyder M. Control of Giardia infections with ronidazole and intensive hygiene management in a dog kennel.external icon Vet Parasitol. 2011;187(1-2):93-8.
• Ballweber LR, Xiao L, Bowman D, Kahn G, Cama VA. Giardiasis in dogs and cats: update on epidemiology and public health significance.external icon Trends Parasitol. 2010;26(4):180-9.
• Tangtrongsup S, Scorza V. Update on the diagnosis and management of Giardia spp infections in dogs and cats pdf icon[PDF – 8 pages]external icon. Top Companion Anim Med. 2010;25(3):155-62.
• Xiao L, Fayer R. Molecular characterisation of species and genotypes of Cryptosporidium and Giardia and assessment of zoonotic transmission.external icon Int J Parasitol. 2008;38:1239–55.
• Thompson, RCA. The zoonotic significance and molecular epidemiology of Giardia and giardiasis.external icon Vet Parasitol. 2004;126(1-2):15-35.
• Berrilli F, Di Cave D, De Liberato C, Franco A, Scaramozzino P, Orecchia P. Genotype characterisation of Giardia duodenalis isolates from domestic and farm animals by SSU-rRNA gene sequencing.external icon Vet Parasitol. 2004;122:193-9.