SEED Research Findings

Methods and descriptions of the SEED study sample

SEED investigators have prepared several reports detailing the study methods and describing the children enrolled in the SEED sample. These reports provide foundational information about SEED for other researchers, policymakers, and clinicians.

• Community-based Service Use in Preschool Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Associations with Insurance Status. Rubenstein E, Croen L, Lee LC, et al. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2019;66:101410.
  
• Assessment of Demographic and Perinatal Predictors of Non-Response and Impact of Non-Response on Measures of Association in a Population-based Case-Control Study: Findings from the Georgia Study to Explore Early Development. Schieve LA, Harris S, Maenner MJ, Alexander A, Dowling NF. Emerg Themes Epidemiol. 2018;15:12. Published 2018 Aug 16.
• Demographic and Operational Factors Predicting Study Completion in a Multisite Case-Control Study of Preschool Children. Bradley CB, Browne EN, Alexander AA, et al. Am J Epidemiol. 2018;187(3):592-603.
• Demographic Profile of Families and Children in the Study to Explore Early Development (SEED): Case-Control Study of Autism Spectrum Disorder. DiGuiseppi CG, Daniels JL, Fallin DM, et al. Disabil Health J. 2016;9(3):544-551.

• Autism Spectrum Disorder Symptoms among Children Enrolled in the Study to Explore Early Development (SEED). Wiggins LD, Levy SE, Daniels J, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2015;45(10):3183-3194.
  
• Using Standardized Diagnostic Instruments to Classify Children with Autism in the Study to Explore Early Development. Wiggins LD, Reynolds A, Rice CE, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2015;45(5):1271-1280.
  

• The Study to Explore Early Development (SEED): A Multisite Epidemiologic Study of Autism by the Centers for Autism and Developmental Disabilities Research and Epidemiology (CADDRE) Network. Schendel DE, Diguiseppi C, Croen LA, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2012;42(10):2121-2140.
  

Exploring risk factors for ASD and other developmental disabilities

• Maternal Psychiatric Conditions, Treatment With Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors, and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Ames JL, Ladd-Acosta C, Fallin MD, et al. Biol Psychiatry. 2021;90(4):253-262.
  
• Maternal Pre-Pregnancy Weight and Gestational Weight Gain in Association with Autism and Developmental Disorders in Offspring. Windham GC, Anderson M, Lyall K, et al. Autism Res. 2019;12(2):316-327.
• Infection and Fever in Pregnancy and Autism Spectrum Disorders: Findings from the Study to Explore Early Development. Croen LA, Qian Y, Ashwood P, et al. Autism Res. 2019;12(10):1551-1561.
• Neonatal Jaundice in Association with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Developmental Disorder. Cordero C, Schieve LA, Croen LA, et al. J Perinatol. 2020;40(2):219-225.
  
• Early Life Exposure to Air Pollution and Autism Spectrum Disorder: Findings from a Multisite Case-Control Study. McGuinn LA, Windham GC, Kalkbrenner AE, et al. Epidemiology. 2020;31(1):103-114.
  
• Air Pollution, Neighborhood Deprivation, and Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Study to Explore Early Development. McGuinn LA, Windham GC, Messer LC, et al. Environ Epidemiol. 2019;3(5):e067.
  
• Association Between Breastfeeding Initiation and Duration and Autism Spectrum Disorder in Preschool Children Enrolled in the Study to Explore Early Development. Soke GN, Maenner M, Windham G, et al. Autism Res. 2019;12(5):816-829.
  
• Maternal Diabetes and Hypertensive Disorders in Association with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Cordero C, Windham GC, Schieve LA, et al. Autism Res. 2019;12(6):967-975.
  
• Maternal Pre-pregnancy Body Mass Index and Gestational Weight Gain in Relation to Autism Spectrum Disorder and Other Developmental Disorders in Offspring. Windham GC, Anderson M, Lyall K, et al. Autism Res. 2019;12(2):316-327.
• Brief Report: Maternal Opioid Prescription from Preconception Through Pregnancy and the Odds of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Autism Features in Children. Rubenstein E, Young JC, Croen LA, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2019;49(1):376-382. [published correction appears in J Autism Dev Disord. 2018 Sep 20;:].
• Family history of Immune Conditions and Autism Spectrum and Developmental Disorders: Findings from the Study to Explore Early Development. Croen LA, Qian Y, Ashwood P, et al. Autism Res. 2019;12(1):123-135.
• Case-Control Meta-Analysis of Blood DNA Methylation and Autism Spectrum Disorder. Andrews SV, Sheppard B, Windham GC, et al. Mol Autism. 2018;9:40. Published 2018 Jun 28.
• Associations Between the 2nd to 4th Digit Ratio and Autism Spectrum Disorder in Population-Based Samples of Boys and Girls: Findings from the Study to Explore Early Development. Schieve LA, Tian L, Dowling N, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2018;48(7):2379-2395.
  
• Autism Spectrum Disorder and Birth Spacing: Findings from the Study to Explore Early Development (SEED). Schieve LA, Tian LH, Drews-Botsch C, et al. Autism Res. 2018;11(1):81-94.
  
• Prenatal Alcohol Exposure in Relation to Autism Spectrum Disorder: Findings from the Study to Explore Early Development (SEED). Singer AB, Aylsworth AS, Cordero C, et al. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2017;31(6):573-582.
  
• Maternal and Paternal Infertility Disorders and Treatments and Autism Spectrum Disorder: Findings from the Study to Explore Early Development. Schieve LA, Drews-Botsch C, Harris S, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017;47(12):3994-4005.
• Pleiotropic Mechanisms Indicated for Sex Differences in Autism. Mitra I, Tsang K, Ladd-Acosta C, et al. PLoS Genet. 2016;12(11):e1006425. Published 2016 Nov 15. [published correction appears in PLoS Genet. 2017 Jun 7;13(6):e1006831].
• Presence of an Epigenetic Signature of Prenatal Cigarette Smoke Exposure in Childhood. Ladd-Acosta C, Shu C, Lee BK, et al. Environ Res. 2016;144(Pt A):139-148.
• Maternal Exposure to Occupational Asthmagens During Pregnancy and Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Study to Explore Early Development. Singer AB, Windham GC, Croen LA, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2016;46(11):3458-3468.

Health and behavior characteristics of children with ASD and other developmental disabilities

• Many Young Children with Autism Who Use Psychotropic Medication Do Not Receive Behavior Therapy: A Multisite Case-Control Study. Wiggins LD, Nadler C, Rosenberg S, et al. J Pediatr. 2021;232:264-271.
• Gastrointestinal Symptoms in 2- to 5-Year-Old Children in the Study to Explore Early Development. Reynolds AM, Soke GN, Sabourin KR, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2021;51(11):3806-3817.
• Pica, Autism, and Other Disabilities. Fields VL, Soke GN, Reynolds A, et al. Pediatrics. 2021;147(2):e20200462.
• Mapping the Relationship between Dysmorphology and Cognitive, Behavioral, and Developmental Outcomes in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Tian LH, Wiggins LD, Schieve LA, et al. Autism Res. 2020;13(7):1227-1238.
• Expressive Dominant Versus Receptive Dominant Language Patterns in Young Children: Findings from the Study to Explore Early Development. Reinhartsen DB, Tapia AL, Watson L, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2019;49(6):2447-2460.
• Wandering Among Preschool Children With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder. Wiggins LD, DiGuiseppi C, Schieve L, et al. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2020;41(4):251-257.
• Injury-related Treatments and Outcomes in Preschool Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Study to Explore Early Development (SEED). DiGuiseppi C, Sabourin KR, Levy SE, et al. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2019;66:10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101413.
  
• Early Life Influences on Child Weight Outcomes in the Study to Explore Early Development. Kral TV, Chittams J, Bradley CB, et al. Autism. 2019;23(4):954-962.
• Sleep Problems in 2- to 5-Year-Olds With Autism Spectrum Disorder and Other Developmental Delays. Reynolds AM, Soke GN, Sabourin KR, et al. Pediatrics. 2019;143(3):e20180492.
  
• A Novel Approach to Dysmorphology to Enhance the Phenotypic Classification of Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Study to Explore Early Development. Shapira SK, Tian LH, Aylsworth AS, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2019;49(5):2184-2202.
  
• Relationship of Weight Outcomes, Co-Occurring Conditions, and Severity of Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Study to Explore Early Development. Levy SE, Pinto-Martin JA, Bradley CB, et al. J Pediatr. 2019;205:202-209.
  
• Infections in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Study to Explore Early Development (SEED). Sabourin KR, Reynolds A, Schendel D, et al. Autism Res. 2019;12(1):136-146.
  
• Brief Report: Self-Injurious Behaviors in Preschool Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Compared to Other Developmental Delays and Disorders. Soke GN, Rosenberg SA, Rosenberg CR, Vasa RA, Lee LC, DiGuiseppi C. J Autism Dev Disord. 2018;48(7):2558-2566.
• Associations between Parental Broader Autism Phenotype and Child Autism Spectrum Disorder Phenotype in the Study to Explore Early Development. Rubenstein E, Wiggins LD, Schieve LA, et al. Autism. 2019;23(2):436-448.
  
• The Prevalence of Gluten Free Diet Use among Preschool Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Rubenstein E, Schieve L, Bradley C, et al. Autism Res. 2018;11(1):185-193.
  
• Injuries in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Study to Explore Early Development (SEED). DiGuiseppi C, Levy SE, Sabourin KR, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2018;48(2):461-472.
  
• Homogeneous Subgroups of Young Children with Autism Improve Phenotypic Characterization in the Study to Explore Early Development. Wiggins LD, Tian LH, Levy SE, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017;47(11):3634-3645.
  
• Self-injurious Behaviors in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Enrolled in the Study to Explore Early Development. Soke GN, Rosenberg SA, Rosenberg CR, Vasa RA, Lee LC, DiGuiseppi C. Autism. 2018;22(5):625-635.
  

Evaluation of clinical and laboratory methods using SEED data

In addition to research on ASD risk factors and on the developmental characteristics and health outcomes of children with ASD or other developmental disabilities, the wealth of data collected in SEED has allowed researchers to address critical gaps in our understanding of the performance of various ASD screening and assessment tools and to contribute to the development of genetic laboratory tests.

• Temperament Similarities and Differences: A Comparison of Factor Structures from the Behavioral Style Questionnaire in Children with and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder. Barger B, Moody EJ, Ledbetter C, D'Abreu L, Hepburn S, Rosenberg SA. J Autism Dev Disord. 2019;49(5):1749-1762.
• ASD Screening with the Child Behavior Checklist/1.5-5 in the Study to Explore Early Development. Levy SE, Rescorla LA, Chittams JL, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2019;49(6):2348-2357.
• DSM-5 criteria for Autism Spectrum Disorder Maximizes Diagnostic Sensitivity and Specificity in Preschool Children. Wiggins LD, Rice CE, Barger B, et al. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2019;54(6):693-701.
• Bayesian Correction for Exposure Misclassification and Evolution of Evidence in Two Studies of the Association Between Maternal Occupational Exposure to Asthmagens and Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Singer AB, Daniele Fallin M, Burstyn I. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2018;5(3):338-350.
• Influence of Family Demographic Factors on Social Communication Questionnaire Scores. Rosenberg SA, Moody EJ, Lee LC, et al. Influence of family demographic factors on social communication questionnaire scores. Autism Res. 2018;11(5):695-706.
• The Broader Autism Phenotype in Mothers is Associated with Increased Discordance Between Maternal-Reported and Clinician-Observed Instruments that Measure Child Autism Spectrum Disorder. Rubenstein E, Edmondson Pretzel R, Windham GC, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017;47(10):3253-3266.
• Screening for Autism with the SRS and SCQ: Variations across Demographic, Developmental and Behavioral Factors in Preschool Children. Moody EJ, Reyes N, Ledbetter C, et al. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017;47(11):3550-3561.
• Brief Report: The ADOS Calibrated Severity Score Best Measures Autism Diagnostic Symptom Severity in Pre-School Children. Wiggins LD, Barger B, Moody E, Soke G, Pandey J, Levy S. J Autism Dev Disord. 2019;49(7):2999-3006.
• Cross-tissue Integration of Genetic and Epigenetic Data Offers Insight into Autism Spectrum Disorder. Andrews SV, Ellis SE, Bakulski KM, et al. Nat Commun. 2017;8(1):1011. Published 2017 Oct 24.
• "Gap hunting" to characterize clustered probe signals in Illumina methylation array data. Andrews SV, Ladd-Acosta C, Feinberg AP, Hansen KD, Fallin MD. Epigenetics Chromatin. 2016;9:56. Published 2016 Dec 7.