Workplace Safety and Health Topics

NIOSH

MACHINE SAFETY

Machine safety is critical for worker safety, because machines have many ways to injure workers: Many machines have moving parts, sharp edges, and hot surfaces with the potential to cause severe workplace injuries such as crushed fingers or hands, amputations, burns, or blindness. Safeguards are essential for protecting workers from these preventable injuries. Any machine part, function, or process that might cause injury must be safeguarded. When the operation of a machine may result in a contact injury to the operator or others in the vicinity, the hazards must be eliminated or controlled.

High Bay Laboratory

This laboratory is a specially constructed facility with elevated (37 feet) ceilings and an overhead catwalk and is dedicated to research efforts in reducing fall-related injuries, as well as in improving the safety of large equipment used in industrial, construction, and agricultural applications. Overall dimensions of the laboratory are 30 by 36 by 37 feet, which are necessary for accommodating such research efforts as studies of scaffolding systems, ladder stability, tension/compression testing of fabricated protective structures using hydraulic ram pressure, and access/egress safety for construction equipment.

Project contact: Doug Cantis
Protective Technology Branch
(304) 285-6013

Machine-Related Injury Research at NIOSH

Machine Guarding – Small to Medium Enterprises, Impact R&D
This project will work with small wood product manufacturing businesses to limit the number of contact incidents with stationary sawing machinery. Many small companies do not have the resources to have dedicated safety professionals to interpret the many different machine safety regulations and standards. This project will develop risk assessment templates based on machine safety regulations/standards to guide companies to minimize risk from stationary sawing machinery.

Project contact: James Harris
Protective Technology Branch
(304) 285-6120
Project period: 2012–2015

Utilization of CROPS Designs in Retrofit Program
Approximately 4.2 million tractors are used on farms and ranches across the United States. The average age of agricultural tractors is over 25 years with some of the oldest models being the most popular. Older tractors are less safe than newer tractors, and many older tractors are operated by populations at greatest risk of becoming injured or killed by the tractor they are operating. A key tractor safety device, a rollover protective structure (ROPS) is missing from most tractors manufactured before 1985. The purpose of this Public Health Practice project is to increase the level of rollover protection for tractor operators (farmers) and increase their general knowledge in farm-related safety information. This project addresses the need to offer rollover protection to pre-1985 agricultural tractors. This project will focus on two tractor models—the Ford 8N and Massey Ferguson 135. It will be an addition to the already-established ROPS retrofit program operated by The New York Center for Agricultural Medicine and Health (NYCAMH). The NYCAMH retrofit ROPS program has been in operation since November 2006. The adoption (installation) of the ROPS technology developed by NIOSH will increase the level of rollover protection for tractor operators (farmers) and increase their knowledge of farm-related safety in the states of New York, Pennsylvania, and Vermont.

Project contact: Tony McKenzie, Ph.D.
Protective Technology Branch
(304) 285-6064
Project period: 2009–2012

ROPS Attribute Identification by Channel Intermediary
This is a pilot project to determine the utility of ROPS parts dealers in providing actionable information on various aspects of ROPS configuration, desired attributes, and relevant variables for promotion and acceptance of retrofit ROPS for farm populations at risk of injury from the overturn of unprotected farm tractors. This project will partner with the New York Center for Agriculture Medicine and Health (NYCAMH) to determine the optimal choice configuration for sets of attributes and most desirable attributes for tractor retrofit ROPS, as determined by preference selection by tractor parts dealers. The dealers selected for participation in this project understand consumer demand and manufacturer constraints. Distribution channels for tractor parts are geographically distributed across the state of New York, and these dealers have unique knowledge of demand and preferred configurations of ROPS for the different kinds of farming encountered within the state of New York. The 700-some members of North American Equipment Dealers Association within the state of New York will constitute the study population. A mail survey will be jointly prepared by a qualitative research specialist at NYCAMH and a health communications specialist in NIOSH. The survey will be administered by NYCAMH and responses will be jointly analyzed by NYCAMH and NIOSH. Publication and dissemination of research findings will be through a peer-reviewed publication, presentations at agricultural conferences, a set of recommendations for manufacturers of ROPS, and recommendations for communications messages.

Project contact: Paul Keane
Protective Technology Branch
(304) 285-5901
Project period: 2009–2012

Fall Injury Controls and Interventions for Aerial Lifts
The objective of this study is to identify fall protection strategies and recommend effective intervention programs to workers who are at risk of injury from work at elevation on aerial lifts. This project has three study components: (1) biomechanical and mechanical assessment of harness/lanyard use by aerial lift operators; (2) establishment of lift stability margins and their impact on operators; and (3) evaluation of fall hazards and relevant intervention effectiveness using virtual reality techniques. This project addresses strategic priorities for prevention of traumatic injuries for two out of the four leading causes (i.e., falls and machines) of fatal injury, and one of the priority industries (i.e., construction). The outputs of this project provide information associated with fall protection systems to aerial-lift standards committees, industries, and interested parties.

Project contact: Christopher Pan, Ph.D.
Protective Technology Branch
(304) 285-5979
Project period: 2007–2011

Commercialization of a Cost-effective ROPS (CROPS) Design
The long-term goal of this project was to increase the portion of tractors in the United States that have a rollover protective structure (ROPS) and seatbelt installed. NIOSH accomplished this by using ROPS manufacturers to transfer designs for cost-effective ROPS (CROPS) developed in previous NIOSH research to the commercial market. Millions of tractors in the United States do not have ROPS, and cost can be an important factor when a farmer considers placing ROPS on his/her tractor. Prototype designs developed by NIOSH are estimated to cost less than half the installed cost of a typical commercial ROPS. As a result of this project, farmers now have additional, lower cost options for fitting a ROPS to their tractor.

Project contact: Jim Harris, Ph.D.
Protective Technology Branch
(304) 285-6120
Project period: 2003–2004

Evaluate U.S. Adaptation of European Machinery Risk Reduction Program
The project was an intervention evaluation of the new ANSI B11-TR3 Machinery Risk Assessment/Risk Reduction (RA/RR) guideline and training for its use. The TR3 intervention was introduced into 12 companies on two machinery systems in each company. In FY02, NIOSH partnered with a private sector contractor to conduct the evaluation. Evaluation measures included avoided injuries, reduced exposure to machinery hazards, pre-test and post-test knowledge demonstration, assessment of group processes following training, correct implementation of the guidelines, and degree to which risk reduction recommendations are implemented. The application of the validated risk assessment methodology has guided machinery designer/user teams to implement protective measures appropriate to the risk, with a resultant reduction in machinery-related injury.

Project contact: Jim Harris, Ph.D.
Protective Technology Branch
Project period: 2001–2005

Lockout/Tagout, Jammed and Moving Machinery Controls/DSR
This safety engineering project focused on the skills of NIOSH experts to develop automatic protection from hazardous machine energy. Two engineering controls were designed, tested and introduced into the workplace to eliminate the need for workers themselves to always be responsible for shutting off machinery before clearing, unjamming, and inspection work is performed at dangerous locations. In U.S. workplaces, failure to control hazardous machine energy is the primary cause of traumatic injuries, such as amputations, and crush fatalities. Specific targets for the research were crushing hazards for conveyor motion and for jam-clearing with baling equipment. As a result of this project, U.S. workplaces have new machine injury prevention devices that automatically initiate hazardous energy control before maintenance, unjamming, and inspection.

Project contact: John Powers
Protective Technology Branch
Project period: 2000–2005

New Technology to Increase ROPS Use on Tractors
This safety engineering project employed technical skills and instrumentation to work on a common injury prevention problem: too many tractors still do not have ROPS, a proven, effective injury prevention device. Over 60% of tractors in use do not have ROPS installed. Specific targets of the research are a simpler, more economical ROPS design for retrofitting older tractors; field tests of a self-raising structure for use when overhead clearance is restricted; field tests of a sensor that detects an imminent rollover and can initiate deployment of a self-raising structure; and analysis of composite materials to reduce the weight of adjustable structures and improve the corrosion resistance of ROPS designs. As a result of this project, U.S. industry and tractor owners have the capabilities to equip significantly more tractors with ROPS.

Project contact: Tony McKenzie, Ph.D.
Protective Technology Branch
Project period: 1999–2003

RF Safety System to Protect Workers from Caught-In Injury
The objective of this control technology project was to design a radio frequency (RF)-based safety system to protect agriculture workers from machinery-related caught-in accidents. The system consists of a small worker-worn, low-power RF transmitter to transmit a modulated RF signal throughout the worker’s body and an RF receiver with two proximity-sensing antennas mounted in parallel around a wood chipper’s feed chute. By analyzing the relative strength of the RF signals from the antennas, the receiver recognizes the worker’s proximity to the chute and initiates the alarm, shut-down or feed-roll reversal mechanism. The system also provides redundant lockout protection during repair and maintenance. This low cost (less than $100) proximity protection system could be easily applied to various grinding, chopping, stamping, and press-type machines to effectively reduce machinery-related caught-in traumatic injuries.

Project contact: John Powers
Protective Technology Branch
Project period: 1999–2003

NIOSH Publications on Machine-related Injury

Manufacturing

Workplace Solutions: Using Lockout and Tagout Procedures to Prevent Injury and Death during Machine Maintenance
NIOSH Publication No. 2011-156 (April 2011)
Workers are at risk of severe injury and death during machine maintenance and servicing if proper lockout and tagout procedures are not followed. NIOSH recommends developing and implementing a hazardous energy control program including lockout and tagout procedures and worker training to prevent such incidents.
En español

Circumstances of Fatal Lockout/Tagout-related Injuries in Manufacturing
American Journal of Industrial Medicine: October 2008 / 51(10):728–734

NIOSH Alert: Preventing Deaths and Injuries While Compacting or Baling Refuse Material
NIOSH Publication No. 2003-124 (July 2003)
The Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) is a multisource data system maintained by the Bureau of Labor Statistics to identify work-related deaths in the United States. A NIOSH review of the CFOI data identified 34 compactor-related fatalities during 1992–2000 in which the victim was caught in or crushed by the compacting ram of the machine.

NIOSH Alert: Preventing Worker Deaths from Uncontrolled Release of Electrical, Mechanical, and Other Types of Hazardous Energy
NIOSH Publication No. 99-110 (August 1999)
No detailed national data are available on the number of workers killed each year by contact with uncontrolled hazardous energy. However, during the period 1982–1997, NIOSH investigated 1,281 fatal incidents as part of their FACE Program. Of these, 152 involved installation, maintenance, service, or repair tasks on or near machines, equipment, processes, or systems.

Hazard Controls: Control of Scrap Paper Baler Crushing Hazards
NIOSH Publication No. 97-113 (April 1997)
This leaflet presents methods for controlling the crushing hazards associated with scrap paper balers. Exposure to crushing and amputation hazards exist for workers involved in loading, operating, or maintaining balers. Hazards also exist in the lockout procedures. Although sixteen and seventeen year old workers may legally load material into balers, they may not operate or maintain them. Three criteria are suggested for protecting workers from injury during operation of paper balers. First, the point of operation guarding must prevent workers from placing any parts of their body into hazardous areas during operation. Secondly, periodic inspection and maintenance of the equipment and the safeguarding devices must be conducted. Thirdly, workers must be trained in the safe operation of the equipment, understand the hazards related to bypassing safety devices, and recognize the limitations and effective operating ranges of safety devices. Requirements of the American National Standards Institutes for baling equipment safety are defined. Minimum performance requirements for the control of hazardous energy as set forth by OSHA also are noted.

Simulation of the After-Reach Hazard on Power Presses Using Dual Palm Button Actuation
Human Factors: February 1987 / 29(1):9–18

The Use of Safety Devices and Safety Controls at Industrial Machine Work Stations
Handbook of Human Factors: 1987 / :861–875

Agriculture & Forestry

Predicting the performance of cost-effective rollover protective structure designs
Safety Science: October 2011 / 49(8-9):1252-1261

Evaluating the Protective Capacity of Two-post ROPS for a Seat-belted Occupant During a Farm Tractor Overturn
Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health: January 2011 / 17(1):15-32

Certified Safe Farm: Identifying and Removing Hazards on the Farm
Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health: April 2010 / 16(2):75-86

ROPS Performance During Field Upset and Static Testing
Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health: January 2010 / 16(1):5–18

Commercializing an Automatically Deployable Rollover Protective Structure (AutoROPS) for a Zero-turn Riding Mower: Initial Product Safety Assessment Criteria
Proceedings of IMECE04, 2004 ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, November 13-20, 2004, Anaheim, California, New York: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2004 Nov; :1–7

Hazard ID 13: Hazards Associated With Using Farm Tractors to Move Large Bales
NIOSH Publication No. 2001-146 (July, 2001)
According to NIOSH analysis of data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 74 workers were fatally injured from 1992 through 1998 while harvesting, handling, or working near bales and bale-handling equipment. Forty-two of these workers were killed while preparing bales for transport or while moving them. Farm tractors were involved in 34 of these 42 events. In a number of these deaths, rollover protective structures on tractors and specialized handling equipment were not used, and parked tractors were not secured to prevent them from rolling.
En español

Remote Controls on an Agricultural Tractor for Performing ASAE/SAE Field Upset Tests
Proceedings of the 93rd Annual International Meeting of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Paper No. 007004, Milwaukee, WI, July 9-12, 2000. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers, July 2000; :1-6

Effectiveness of Roll-over Protective Structures in Reducing Arm Tractor Fatalities
American Journal of Preventive Medicine: May 2000 / 18(4S):63-69

Hazard ID 8: Injury Associated With Working Near or Operating Wood Chippers
NIOSH Publication No. 99-145 (August, 1999)
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 11 workers lost their lives during 1992 through 1997 while working near mobile wood chippers. In seven of the incidents, the victim was caught by the feed mechanism and pulled through the chipper knives. The victims in four of the incidents were struck by hoods (guards that cover the rotating chipper knives) that separated from the machines after being improperly opened or closed while knives were still rotating.

Update: Improper Hitching To Tractors Can Be Fatal
NIOSH Publication No. 97-108 (January 14, 1997)
Farmers and others who use tractors are at risk for severe injury or death if proper hitching methods are not used when towing or pulling objects with tractors.

Update: NIOSH Warns Farmers of Forage Wagon Hazards
NIOSH Publication No. 95-118 (September 14, 1995)
Working with forage wagons can be extremely dangerous and may cause severe injury, amputation, or death. Installing an extension to increase the space between the tractors and ensuring that PTO drivelines are properly guarded will significantly reduce the risk of injury.

Safe Grain and Silage Handling
NIOSH Publication No. 95-109 (August, 1995)
Grain-handling machinery is the second largest cause of farm machinery-related deaths and also causes many severe disfiguring injuries and amputations. Many grain-handling hazards can be avoided. The goal of this booklet is to point out these hazards and suggest practical ways to prevent injury. These suggestions were gathered from agricultural engineers and safety experts throughout the world, but primarily from the United States and Canada.

NIOSH Alert: Preventing Injuries and Deaths of Loggers
NIOSH Publication No. 95-101 (May 1995)
During the period 1980–89, an estimated 1,492 deaths occurred in the logging industry. Most of these logging deaths occurred in four occupational groups: logging occupations (for example, fellers, limbers, buckers, and choker setters), truck drivers, general laborers, and material machine operators.
En español

NIOSH Alert: Preventing Scalping and Other Severe Injuries from Farm Machinery
NIOSH Publication No. 94-105 (June 1994)
Many farm workers are injured each year when clothing, hair, or body parts become entangled around the inadequately guarded rotating drivelines or shafts of farm machinery driven by power take-offs.
En español

Update: Danger of Hair Entanglement in Hay Baler Drive Shafts
NIOSH Publication No. 93-126 (May 20, 1993)
Five women in New York have been scalped and/or suffered severe facial disfigurement due to their hair becoming entangled in hay balers. All four incidents involved a secondary driveline which powers bale throwers on hay balers manufactured by New Holland in the early 1970s. The bale throwers that post this hazard are Models 54A, 54B, 58, and 62, which were placed on a variety of New Holland hay balers. Although these models are no longer manufactured, an unknown number remain in use. It is essential that all farmers, farm family members, and farm workers be alerted to the hazards of working with this and other farm machinery.

NIOSH Alert: Preventing Entrapment and Suffocation Caused by the Unstable Surfaces of Stored Grain and Other Materials
NIOSH Publication No. 88-102 (December 1987)
Entrapment and suffocation are hazards associated with storage bins and hoppers where loose materials such as grain, sand, or gravel are stored, handled, or transferred. The fatalities described in this Alert occurred when suspended materials or crusted surfaces of stored material suddenly broke loose and entrapped the workers. The behavior of such material is unpredictable, and entrapment and burial can occur in a matter of seconds. This Alert recounts seven case reports describing the deaths of 12 workers. In each case, the workers became entrapped in grain or other loose material and were unable to free themselves or be freed by their coworkers. These deaths demonstrate the need to focus on preventing future fatalities.

Construction

An Investigation on the Dynamic Stability of Scissor Lift
Open Journal of Safety Science and Technology: March 2012 / 2(1):8–15

Assessment of Fall Arrest Systems for Scissor Lift Operators: Computer Modeling and Manikin Drop Testing
Human Factors: June 2012 / 54(3):358–372

NIOSH Alert: Preventing Injuries and Deaths from Skid Steer Loaders
NIOSH Publication No. 2011-128 (December 2010)
NIOSH studies in the 1990s suggested that employers, supervisors, and workers may not fully appreciate the potential hazards associated with operating or working near skid-steer loaders and they may not follow safe work procedures for controlling these hazards. This Alert describes six deaths involving skid-steer loaders and recommends methods for preventing similar incidents.

Fall Arrest Characteristics of a Scissor Lift
Journal of Safety Research: June 2010 / 41(3):213–220

Scissor Lift Safety – An Initiative to Model Static Stability
Professional Safety: April 2009 / 54(4):43–48

NIOSH Alert: Preventing Worker Injuries and Deaths from Mobile Crane Tip-Over, Boom Collapse, and Uncontrolled Hoisted Loads
NIOSH Publication No. 2006-142 (September 2006)
This Alert describes six incidents resulting in the deaths of eight workers and injuries to two others who were either working near or operating mobile cranes. In each incident, these injuries or deaths could have been prevented by using proper safety procedures.

Workplace Solutions: Preventing Injuries When Working With Ride-On Roller/Compactors
NIOSH Publication No. 2005-101 (November 2004)
Workers who operate or work around roller/compactors are at risk of injury from a machine rollover or being struck by the machine or its components. NIOSH recommends that injuries and deaths be prevented through wider use of rollover protective structures (ROPS) and seat belts on roller/compactors, training, establishing and adhering to safety plans and safe work practices, and use of appropriate personal protective equipment.

Preventing Injuries When Working with Hydraulic Excavators and Backhoe Loaders
NIOSH Publication No. 2004-107 (November 2003)
Workers who operate or work near hydraulic excavators and backhoe loaders are at risk of being struck by the machine or its components or by excavator buckets that detach from the excavator stick. NIOSH recommends that injuries and deaths be prevented through training, proper installation and maintenance, work practices, and personal protective equipment.

Ergonomic Risk Factors: A study of Heavy Earthmoving Machinery Operators
Professional Safety: October 2002 / 47(10):38–45

RI 9657: Recommendations For Testing Radar-Based Collision Warning Systems on Heavy Equipment
NIOSH Publication No. 2002-135 (May 2002)
Researchers at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health investigate technologies that could be used to detect objects, small vehicles, and pedestrian workers that may be in the blind areas of haulage equipment used in mining and construction. This report discusses several different test procedures and test targets and recommends methods to determine how effective a radar system will be in detecting a person near heavy equipment.

NIOSH ALERT: Preventing Injuries and Deaths of Workers Who Operate or Work Near Forklifts
NIOSH Publication No. 2001-109 (June 2001)
Each year in the United States, nearly 100 workers are killed and another 20,000 are seriously injured in forklift-related incidents. Forklift overturns are the leading cause of fatalities involving forklifts; they represent about 25% of all forklift-related deaths.

Machinery-related Fatalities in the U.S. Construction Industry, 1980-1992
NOIRS 1997 Abstracts of the National Occupational Injury Research Symposium 1997. Washington, DC: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, October 1997:2

MMWR

Skid-Steer Loader-Related Fatalities in the Workplace–United States, 1992-1995
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report: July 1996 / 45(29):624–628

Youth

Limitations in Fields of Vision for Simulated Young Farm Tractor Operators
Ergonomics: June 2010 / 53(6):758–766

Ability of Youth Operators to Reach Farm Tractor Controls
Ergonomics: June 2009 / 52(6):685–694

Injuries to Youth on Farms and Safety Recommendations, U.S. 2006
NIOSH Publication No. 2009-117 (February 2009)
The majority of deaths to youth on U.S. farms were due to machinery (23%), motor vehicles (19%), and drowning (16%).

NIOSH Alert: Preventing Deaths, Injuries and Illnesses of Young Workers
NIOSH Publication No. 2003-128 (July 2003)
Working youth are exposed to, and injured by, machinery in agriculture, retail trades, transportation and construction.
En español

General

Machine Safety: New & Updated Consensus Standards
Professional Safety: May 2012 / 57(5):50–57

Innovative Safety Interventions: Feasibility of Using Intelligent Video for Machinery Applications
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine: May-June 2010 / 16(3):45–49

Machine Safety: Developing an Operator Presence System
Professional Safety: November 2009 / 54(11):28–31

Reducing Risk on Machinery: A Field Evaluation Pilot Study of Risk Assessment
Risk Analysis: June 2008 / 28(3):711–721

Fatal and Nonfatal Occupational Injuries Involving Wood Chippers—United States, 1992–2002
JAMA The Journal of the American Medical Association: January 2005 / 293(4):418–419.

Computer Simulations Help Determine Safe Vertical Boom Speeds for Roof Bolting in Underground Coal Mines
Journal of Safety Research: October 2005 / 36(4):387–397

Temporal Factors and the Prevalence of Transient Exposures at the Time of an Occupational Traumatic Hand Injury
Journal of Occupational Environmental Medicine: August 2003 / 45(8):832–840

Machine-Related Work Injury in the USA
Injury Prevention and Control, 6th World Conference, May 2002, Les Presses de l'Universite de Montreal, 428–429

Safety-Related Machine Controls for Maintenance Risk Reduction
Proc ASSE Prof Develop Conf Expo, June 9-12, 2002, Nashville, Tennessee. Des Plaines, IL: American Society of Safety Engineers, June 2002; Proceedings of the ASSE Professional Development Conference Expo 1–20

Control of Scrap Paper Baler Crushing Hazards
Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene: May 2000 / 15(5):397–399

Machine Safety Research at NIOSH and the Future Directions
International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics: September 1990 / 6(2):163–174

Interfacing Safety Sensors to Industrial Robotic Workstations Sensors
Sensors: April 1987 / 4(4):35–37

Human Motor Reactions to Dangerous Motions in Robot Operations
Department of Industrial Engineering, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, March 1987:47 pages

Automated Maintainability Records and Robot Safety
1987 Proceedings of the Annual Reliability and Maintainability Symposium 1987:135–140

A Model of Human Reaction Time to Dangerous Robot Arm Movements
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting, New York, October 19-23, 1987; 1:191–195

Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) Program Investigations

The FACE fatality investigation program focuses on machine-related fatalities as one of its primary targets for surveillance and prevention. Since the inception of the FACE program in 1982, hundreds of fatal incidents involving machine-related injuries have been investigated by NIOSH and state investigators. These links provide lists of those cases which in turn links to the full-text reports on the FACEWeb.

NIOSHTIC-2 Search

NIOSHTIC-2 search results on Machine Safety
NIOSHTIC-2 is a searchable bibliographic database of occupational safety and health publications, documents, grant reports, and journal articles supported in whole or in part by NIOSH.