Current Trends Compendium of Animal Rabies Control, 1988
Prepared by: The National Association of State Public Health
Veterinarians, Inc.*
Part I: Recommendations for Immunization Procedures
The purpose of these recommendations is to provide information
on
rabies vaccines to practicing veterinarians, public health
officials,
and others concerned with rabies control. This document will serve
as
the basis for animal rabies vaccination programs throughout the
United
States. Its adoption should result in standardization of procedures
among jurisdictions, which is necessary for an effective national
rabies control program. These recommendations are reviewed and
revised
as necessary prior to the beginning of each calendar year. All
animal
rabies vaccines licensed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and
marketed in the United States are listed in Part II of the
compendium.
Part III describes the principles of rabies control.
Vaccine Administration
It is recommended that all animal rabies vaccines be restricted to
use by or under the supervision of a veterinarian.
B. Vaccine Selection
In comprehensive rabies control programs, it is recommended that
only
vaccines with a 3-year duration of immunity be used. This practice
eliminates the need for annual vaccination and constitutes the most
effective method of increasing the proportion of immunized dogs and
cats. (See Part II.)
C. Route of Inoculation
Unless otherwise specified by the product label or package insert,
all vaccines must be administered intramuscularly at one site in
the
thigh.
D. Wildlife Vaccination
Vaccination of wildlife is not recommended since no rabies vaccine
is
licensed for use in wild animals and since there is no evidence
that
any vaccine will protect wild animals against rabies. It is
recommended that neither wild nor exotic animals be kept as pets.
Offspring born to wild animals bred with domestic dogs or cats are
considered wild animals.
E. Accidental Human Exposure to Vaccine
Accidental inoculation of individuals may occur during
administration
of animal rabies vaccine. Such exposure to inactivated vaccines
constitutes no rabies hazard. No cases of rabies have resulted from
needle or other exposure to a licensed modified live-virus vaccine
in
the United States.
F. Identification of Vaccinated Dogs
It is recommended that all agencies and veterinarians adopt the
standard tag system. This practice will aid the administration of
local, state, national, and international procedures. Dog license
tags
should not conflict in shape and color with rabies tags. It is
recommended that anodized aluminum rabies tags be no less than
0.064
inches in thickness.
Rabies Tags.
Calendar Year Color Shape
1988 Red Heart
1989 Blue Rosette
1990 Orange Fireplug
1991 Green Bell
2. Rabies Certificate. All agencies and veterinarians should use
the
National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians
(NASPHV)
form #50, "Rabies Vaccination Certificate," which can be
obtained
from vaccine manufacturers.
Part III: Principles of Rabies Control
These guidelines have been prepared by the NASPHV for use by
government officials, practicing veterinarians, and others who may
become involved in certain aspects of rabies control. It is
intended
that the NASPHV annually review and revise these recommendations as
necessary. Standardized control procedures are needed to deal
effectively with the public health aspects of rabies.
Principles of Rabies Control
Human Rabies Prevention. Rabies in humans can be prevented
either
by eliminating exposures to rabid animals or by providing
exposed
persons with prompt local treatment of wounds combined with
appropriate passive and active immunization. The rationale for
recommending preexposure and postexposure rabies prophylaxis
and
details of their administration can be found in the current
recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory
Committee
(ACIP), of the Public Health Service (1,2). These
recommendations,
along with information concerning the current local and
regional
status of animal rabies and the availability of human rabies
biologics, are available from state health departments.
Domestic Animals. Local governments should initiate and
maintain
effective programs to remove strays and unwanted animals and to
ensure vaccination of all dogs and cats. Since more cases of
rabies are now reported annually among cats than among dogs,
immunization of cats should be required. Such procedures in the
United States have reduced laboratory-confirmed rabies cases in
dogs from 6,949 in 1947 to 94 in 1986. The recommended
vaccination
procedures and the licensed animal vaccines are specified in
Parts
I and II of the NASPHV's annual compendium.
Rabies in Wildlife. The control of rabies among foxes, skunks,
raccoons, and other terrestrial animals is very difficult.
Selective reduction of these populations when indicated may be
useful, but the usefulness of this procedure depends heavily
upon
the circumstances surrounding each rabies outbreak. (See C.
Control Methods in Wild Animals.)
B. Control Methods in Domestic and Confined Animals
Preexposure Vaccination and Management. Animal rabies vaccines
should be administered only by or under the direct supervision
of
a veterinarian. Such administration is the only way to assure
the
public that the animal has been properly immunized. Within 1
month
after vaccination, a peak rabies antibody titer is reached, and
the animal can be considered immunized. (See Parts I and II for
recommended vaccines and procedures.)
Dogs and Cats. All dogs and cats should be vaccinated against
rabies beginning at 3 months of age and should be revaccinated
in
accordance with Part II of this compendium.
Livestock. It is not economically feasible, nor is it justified
from a public health standpoint, to vaccinate all livestock
against rabies. Owners of valuable animals and veterinary
clinicians may consider immunizing certain livestock located in
areas where wildlife rabies is epizootic or where colonies of
bats
exist.
Other Animals.
(1) Animals Maintained in Exhibits and in Zoological Parks. Captive
animals not completely excluded from all contact with local
vectors of rabies can become infected with rabies. Moreover,
such
animals may be incubating rabies when captured. Exhibit
animals,
especially those carnivores and omnivores having contact with
the
viewing public, should be quarantined for a minimum of 180
days.
Since no rabies vaccine is licensed for use in wild animals,
vaccination even with inactivated vaccine is not recommended.
Preexposure rabies vaccination of animal workers at such
facilities is recommended. This practice may reduce the need
for
euthanasia of valuable animals for rabies testing after they
have
bitten a handler.
(2) Wild Animals. Because of the existing risk of rabies in wild
animals (especially raccoons, skunks, and foxes), the American
Veterinary Medical Association, the NASPHV, and the Conference
of
State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE) strongly recommend
the enactment of state laws prohibiting the importation,
distribution, and relocation of wild animals and wild animals
crossbred with domestic dogs and cats. These same organizations
continue to recommend the enactment of laws prohibiting the
distribution or keeping of wild animals as pets. Moreover, the
NASPHV and CSTE recommend that ferrets not be kept as pets
since
they have severely bitten many people and especially since
their
bites have mutilated infants. Ferrets are susceptible to rabies
and could transmit it. Furthermore, the period of rabies virus
shedding in infected ferrets is unknown.
2. Control of Stray Animals. Stray dogs or cats should be removed
from the community, especially in areas where rabies is
epizootic.
Local health department and animal control officials can
enforce
the pickup of strays more efficiently if owned animals are
confined or kept on leash. Strays should be impounded for at
least
3 days to give owners sufficient time to reclaim animals and to
determine if human exposure has occurred.
3. Quarantine.
International. Present Public Health Service regulations (42
CFR
No. 71.51) governing the importation of domestic felines and
canines are minimal for preventing the introduction of rabid
animals into the United States. All dogs and cats imported from
countries with endemic rabies should be vaccinated against
rabies
at least 30 days before entry into the United States.** CDC is
responsible for animals imported into the United States, and
their
requirements should be coordinated with interstate shipment
requirements. The health authority of the state of destination
should be notified of any animal conditionally admitted into
its
jurisdiction within 72 hours. The conditional admission into
the
United States of such animals must be subject to state and
local
laws governing rabies. Failure to comply with these
requirements
should be promptly reported to the director of CDC.
Interstate. Prior to interstate shipment, dogs and cats should
be
vaccinated against rabies according to the compendium's
recommendations and, preferably, should be vaccinated at least
30
days prior to shipment. While in shipment, they should be
accompanied by a currently valid NASPHV Form #50, "Rabies
Vaccination Certificate." One copy of the certificate should be
mailed to the appropriate Public Health Veterinarian or State
Veterinarian of the state of destination.
Health Certificates. If a certificate is required for dogs and
cats in transit, it must not replace the NASPHV rabies
vaccination
certificate.
4. Adjunct Procedures. Methods or procedures that enhance rabies
control include:
Licensure. Registration or licensure of all dogs and cats
controls
the number of stray animals and may, thus, be used as a means
of
rabies control. Frequently a fee is charged for such licensure,
and revenues collected are used to maintain a rabies or animal
control program. Vaccination is usually recommended as a
prerequisite to licensure.
Canvassing of Area. Canvassing includes house-to-house calls by
members of the animal control program to enforce vaccination
and
licensure requirements.
Citations. Citations are legal summonses issued to owners for
control program. Vaccination is usually recommended as a
prerequisite to licensure.
Canvassing of Area. Canvassing includes house-to-house calls by
members of the animal control program to enforce vaccination
and
licensure requirements.
Citations. Citations are legal summonses issued to owners for
violations, including the failure to vaccinate or license their
animals.
Leash Laws. All communities should adopt leash laws that can be
incorporated into their animal control ordinances.
5. Postexposure Management. ANY DOMESTIC ANIMAL THAT IS BITTEN OR
SCRATCHED BY A BAT OR BY A WILD, CARNIVOROUS MAMMAL THAT IS NOT
AVAILABLE FOR TESTING SHOULD BE REGARDED AS HAVING BEEN EXPOSED
TO
A RABID ANIMAL.
Dogs and Cats. When bitten by a rabid animal, unvaccinated dogs
and cats should be destroyed immediately. If the owner is
unwilling to have this done, the unvaccinated animal should be
placed in strict isolation for 6 months and vaccinated 1 month
before being released. Dogs and cats that are currently
vaccinated
should be revaccinated immediately and observed by the owner
for
90 days.
Livestock. All species of livestock are susceptible to rabies
infection; cattle appear to be among the most susceptible of
all
domestic animal species. Livestock known to have been bitten by
rabid animals should be destroyed (slaughtered) immediately. If
the owner is unwilling to have this done, the animal should be
kept under very close observation for 6 months.
Following are recommendations for owners of livestock exposed
to
rabid animals:
(1) If the animal is slaughtered within 7 days of being bitten, its
tissues may be eaten without risk of infection, provided
liberal
portions of the exposed area are discarded. Federal meat
inspectors will reject for slaughter any animal that has been
exposed to rabies within 8 months.
(2) No tissues or secretions from a clinically rabid animal should
be
used for human or animal consumption. However, since
pasteurization temperatures will inactivate rabies virus, the
drinking of pasteurized milk or eating of completely cooked
meat
does not constitute a rabies exposure.
6. Management of Animals That Bite Humans. A healthy dog or cat
that
bites a person should be confined and observed for 10 days and
evaluated by a veterinarian at the first sign of illness during
confinement or before release. Any illness in the animal should
be
reported immediately to the local health department. If signs
suggestive of rabies develop, the animal should be humanely
killed, and its head should be removed and shipped, under
refrigeration, for examination by a qualified laboratory
designated by the local or state health department. Any stray
or
unwanted dog or cat that bites a person can be killed
immediately;
the head should be submitted, as described above, for rabies
examination.
C. Control Methods in Wild Animals
Bats and wild carnivorous mammals (as well as wild animals
crossbred
with domestic dogs and cats) that bite people should be killed, and
appropriate tissues should be sent to the laboratory for
examination
for rabies. A person bitten by a bat or any wild animal should
immediately report the incident to a physician who can evaluate the
need for antirabies treatment. (See current rabies prophylaxis
recommendations of the ACIP (1,2).)
Terrestrial Mammals. Continuous and persistent
government-funded
programs for trapping or poisoning wildlife as a means of
rabies
control are not cost- effective in reducing wildlife reservoirs
or
rabies incidence on a statewide basis. However, limited control
in
high-contact areas (picnic grounds, camps, suburban areas) may
be
indicated for the removal of selected high-risk species of wild
animals. The public should be warned not to handle wild
animals.
The state wildlife agency should be consulted early to manage
any
elimination programs in coordination with the state health
department.
Bats. Rabid bats have been reported from every state except
Hawaii
and have caused human rabies infections in the United States.
It
is neither feasible nor practical, however, to control rabies
in
bats by areawide programs to reduce bat populations. Bats
should
be eliminated from houses and surrounding structures to prevent
direct association with people. Such structures should then be
made bat proof by sealing routes of entrance with screen or by
other means.
Immunization Practices Advisory Committee. Rabies prevention:
supplementary statement on the preexposure use of human diploid
cell rabies vaccine by the intradermal route. MMWR
1986;35:767-8.
*THE NASPHV COMPENDIUM COMMITTEE: R. Keith Sikes, DVM, MPH,
Chairman;
Russell W. Currier, DVM, MPH; Suzanne Jenkins, VMD, MPH; Russell J.
Martin, DVM, MPH; Grayson B. Miller, Jr., MD; F. T. Satalowich,
DVM,
MSPH; James M. Shuler, DVM, MPH. CONSULTANTS TO THE COMMITTEE:
Melvin
K. Abelseth, DVM, PhD, New York State Department of Health; Kenneth
L.
Crawford, DVM, MPH; Thomas R. Eng, VMD, MPH, Centers for Disease
Control; David A. Espeseth, DVM, Veterinary Biologics Staff, APHIS,
U.S. Department of Agriculture; Paul Waters, Representative,
Veterinary Biologics Section, Animal Health Institute. ENDORSED BY:
Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists; AVMA Council on
Public Health and Regulatory Veterinary Medicine.
**In regard to cats, these recommendations do not conform to the
official recommendations of CDC and the Public Health Service.
Although domestic feline rabies has increased, there has been no
evidence of increased risk of imported rabies in cats. U.S. Foreign
Quarantine regulations do not require rabies vaccinations for
imported
cats.
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