Transportation, Warehousing, and Utilities

Burden

In 2015, 29% (615) of all transportation incidents occurred in the transportation, warehousing and utility (TWU) sector, which was the highest percentage among any industry sector. Transportation related incidents represent a high proportion of fatalities in all TWU industry sub-sectors, with the greatest burden in the truck transportation sub-sector at 83% (454 of 546) [BLS 2017a]. The rate of non-fatal days away from work transportation incidents in Transportation and Warehousing was 26.5 per 10,000 workers, 5.5 times the rate for all private industry sectors [BLS 2017b].

Recent research demonstrates that workers and workplaces are impacted by the opioid crisis. Prescription opioids may be both a personal risk factor for work-related injury and a consequence of workplace exposures [Kowalski-McGraw et al., 2017]. A study of workplace overdose fatalities between 2011 and 2016, showed that the transportation and warehousing industries accounted for the highest number (n=116) and rate of death (3.0 deaths per 1,000,000 FTEs) [Tiesman et al 2019]. The use of these drugs may negatively affect the performance of safety-sensitive work tasks such as driving or operating machinery [Manchikant et al. 2012; Hegmann et al. 2014a; Hegmann et al. 2014b]. In addition, several classes of medications have been found to increase the risk of impaired driving: barbiturates, benzodiazepines, certain non-benzodiazepine hypnotics, various antidepressants, opioid and non-steroidal analgesics, anticonvulsants, antipsychotics, antiparkinsonian agents, skeletal muscle relaxants, antihistamines, anticholinergic medications, and hypoglycemic agents [Hetland and Carr 2014].

The organizational structure of work in the TWU sector (e.g., long hours of work, irregular work schedules, non-standard work arrangements, time pressures, long periods away from home, commuting distances, and pay-by-the-mile compensation) can increase work stress and exacerbate risk factors associated with work-related transportation incidents (e.g., fatigue and distraction) [Härmä et al. 2008; NIOSH 2013]. Fatigue is associated with vehicle crashes and disturbances to cognition [Åkerstedt 2000; Marcus and Rosekind 2016; FMCSA 2007]. Highly-automated vehicles hold great promise for reducing these transportation incidents, but fully-automated vehicles will not become commonplace for 20 to 30 years [IIHS 2016], and the next decade is likely to involve a mix of vehicles with varying levels of automation and advanced driver assistance systems. There are questions about the safety of drivers of motor vehicles and operators of planes and ships in this rapidly-changing transportation environment.

Need

For TWU workers, research is needed to better characterize individual-level crash risk factors and adverse incident factors such as fatigued and distracted driving or navigating and impairment caused by both prescribed and illicit drugs. Organizational-level factors such as fleet management, journey management, shift work, training, safety climate, job demands and design, employment arrangements, pay structures, and safety management systems should be considered. Research is needed to characterize the effects of off-the-job factors such as sleep hygiene and health status on work-related driving and navigational safety, and to understand the interrelationship between off-the-job driving (e.g., “mega commutes”) and on-the-job factors (e.g., company driving and crew transportation policies) and motor vehicle safety. Surveillance research is needed to more broadly characterize the burden of prescription and illicit drug use and misuse on workers and workplaces and the role of work organization and employer policies. Intervention research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of employer-based interventions to reduce the impacts of substance use and misuse on workers and workplaces. For automated vehicles, research is needed to assess the effectiveness of currently available advanced driver assistance systems in vehicles used by TWU workers and to determine the safety consequences of operating TWU vehicles in an increasingly automated road environment. Evaluations of interventions, including vehicle design, technology, company practices, and laws are needed to focus implementation efforts on those which are most effective.

Burden

Interactions between workers and machines in transportation, warehousing and utilities (TWU) have been beneficial to the employer and worker by reducing work load and increasing production capabilities. But with these efficiencies have come worker injuries and fatalities. In 2015 in the TWU sector there were 654 vehicle and machine-related fatalities [BLS 2017c]. Heavy and tractor-trailer truck drivers and material moving workers are the groups with leading counts of vehicle and machine-related fatalities [BLS 2017d].

The International Federation of Robotics reports sharp increases in sales, and is projecting that a new type of robot, collaborative robots that work alongside and in conjunction with human workers, will have a market breakthrough in the next several years [IFR 2016]. As robotics and automation integrate into the TWU sector, workers are being tasked with working with these complex systems, such as, ship control systems, automated forklifts and picking machines, and use of drones in warehousing and utilities [Volpe 2012; Banker 2016; Schneider & Deml 2017]. Introduction of these highly automated systems has the potential to improve safety in many areas, but there are increased risks. These systems are highly complicated and more emphasis needs to be placed on operator training and maintenance [Moniz and Krings 2016]. Changes in the roles and responsibilities of the operator introduce increased risk of operator errors especially in the context of unforeseen or atypical events. The current faster pace of technology introduction increases the potential for unforeseen hazards being introduced in the workplace.

Need

Current injury statistics illustrate the need for continued research on the human/machine interface for machines used in today’s workplace, and this research will need to be expanded to address future machines and vehicles. Researchers can provide tools to mitigate these hazards, and reduce injuries and fatalities, through hazard identification strategies and hazard mitigation methods, human factors analysis, educational programs on human factors engineering elements for system design for engineers, and integration of human factors engineering principles in technical engineering and design standards [Leva et. al. 2016; Murashov et. al. 2016]. Because robotics and automation are relatively new to the TWU sector, current surveillance systems do not provide readily available data or a real mechanism to tease out the injury and fatality events associated with robotics and automation. Research is needed to identify data for emerging machines including robots and automation, develop and evaluate surveillance tools, and identify emerging safety problems and risk factors. Research is also needed to develop and improve safety engineering features for new types of human-machine interfaces including robots and automated machines. Research should aim to identify safe and effective human-machine interface designs, develop and improve training for human workers, and evaluate and improve standards and policy.