References and Resources

• Vaccine-Preventable Diseases: Rubella (German Measles)
• CDC Web Feature “Travel Smart: Get Vaccinated”
• Rubella and the Vaccine (Shot) to Prevent It, fact sheet for parents
  • In English
  • En Español
• Birth Defects
• Healthcare-associated Infections (HAI)

Rubella Elimination

• Measles, Rubella & Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS) Elimination
• Documentation and Verification of Measles, Rubella and Congenital Rubella Syndrome Elimination in the Region of the Americas United States National Report, March 28, 2012[1.4 MB, 62 pages]
  • Summary and Conclusions of an External Expert Panel, December 2011[6 pages]
• Elimination of Endemic Measles, Rubella, and Congenital Rubella Syndrome from the Western Hemisphere – the US Experience. 2014. Papania M, Wallace GS, Rota PA, Icenogle JP, Fiebelkorn AP, Armstrong GL, Reef SE, Redd SB, Abernathy ES, Barskey AE, Hao L, McLean HQ, Rota JS, Bellini WJ, Seward JF. JAMA Pediatrics. 2014; 168(2):148-55.
• Rubella and Congenital Rubella Syndrome Control and Elimination — Global Progress, 2000–2012. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2013; 62(48):983-6

Textbooks and Guidelines

• Pink Book (Chapter 20 – Rubella)
• Surveillance Manual (Chapter 14 – Rubella)
  • Appendix 15: Collection of Specimens for Typing of Rubella Virus [2 pages]
  • Appendix 16: Rubella Surveillance Worksheet [2 pages]
• Surveillance Manual (Chapter 15 – Congenital Rubella Syndrome)
  • Appendix 17: Congenital Rubella Surveillance Case Report [2 pages]

• CDC. Prevention of Measles, Rubella, Congenital Rubella Syndrome, and Mumps, 2013: Summary Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR 2013;62(RR04);1-34.

• Red Book: 2015 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases (30th Edition) (Section 3, Rubella)
• 2016 Yellow Book, CDC Health Information for International Travel: Rubella

 Top of Page

Publications

Rubella and Congenital Rubella Syndrome

• Rubella. Lambert N, Strebel P, Orenstein W, Icenogle J, Poland G. The Lancet. 2015; 385(9984):2297-307.
• Pitts SI, Wallace GS, Montana B, Handschur EF, Mieslich D, Sampson AC, Canuso S, Horner J, Barskey AE, Abernathy ES, Icenogle JP. Congenital Rubella Syndrome in child of woman without known risk factors, New Jersey, USA. EID. 2014; 20(2):307-9.
• CDC. Three cases of congenital rubella syndrome in the postelimination era — Maryland, Alabama, and Illinois, 2012. MMWR. 2013;62(12):226-9.
• Measles, mumps, and rubella virus vaccine (M-M-R™II): a review of 32 years of clinical and post-marketing experience. Lievano F1, Galea SA, Thornton M, Wiedmann RT, Manoff SB, Tran TN, Amin MA, Seminack MM, Vagie KA, Dana A, Plotkin SA. Vaccine. 2012; 30(48):6918–26.
• Control and Prevention of Rubella: Evaluation and Management of Suspected Outbreaks, Rubella in Pregnant Women, and Surveillance for Congenital Rubella Syndrome, MMWR, Recommendations and Reports, 2001
• Infectious Diseases of Fetus and Newborn Infant (7th Edition) (Chapter 28-Rubella)
• Manual of Clinical Microbiology (11th Edition) (Chapter 84-Measles and Rubella Viruses)
• Rubella Virus (Perspectives in Medical Virology, 15), eds. Jangu Banatvala and Catherine Peckham. 2007.
• Webster WS. Teratogen update: congenital rubella. Teratology 1998; 58(1):13-23.
• South MA and Sever JL. Teratogen update: the congenital rubella syndrome. Teratology 1985;31(2):297-307.
• Miller E, Cradock-Watson JE, Pollock TM. Consequences of confirmed maternal rubella at successive stages of pregnancy. Lancet 1982;2(8302):781-84.
• Peckham CS. Clinical and laboratory study of children exposed in utero to maternal rubella. Arch Dis Child 1972;47(254):571-77.

Surveillance and Epidemiology

• Averhoff F, Zucker J, Vellozzi C, et al. Adequacy of surveillance to detect endemic rubella transmission in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2006;43(Suppl 3):S151-7.
• Reef SE, Frey TK, Theall K, et al. The changing epidemiology of rubella in the 1990s: On the verge of elimination and new challenges for control and prevention. JAMA 2002;287:464-72.
• National Communicable Disease Center (U.S.). (1969, June 1). Rubella surveillance no. 1, June 1969. [Summarized in this report is information received from state and local health departments and other pertinent sources. Much of the information is preliminary. It is intended primarily for the use of those with responsibility for disease control activities]. Stephen B. Thacker CDC Library collection. CDC Stacks Public Health Publications, Atlanta, GA.

Molecular Epidemiology

• Rivailler P, Abernathy E, Icenogle J. Genetic diversity of currently circulating rubella viruses: a need to define more precise viral groups. Journal of General Virology. 2017. 98:396-404.
• Abernathy E, Peairs RR, Chen MH, Icenogle J, Namdari H. Genomic characterization of a persistent rubella virus from a case of Fuchs’ uveitis syndrome in a 73 year old man. Journal of Clinical Virology. 2015. 69: 104-9.
• World Health Organization. 2013. Rubella virus nomenclature update: 2013. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 88: 337-43.
• Abernathy E, Hubschen J, Muller CP, Jin L, Brown D, et al., Status of Global Virologic Surveillance for Rubella Viruses, The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2011; 204:S524–32.
• World Health Organization. 2007. Update of standard nomenclature for wild-type rubella viruses. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 24: 216-22.
• Icenogle JP, Frey TK, Abernathy E, Reef SE, Shnurr D, Stewart JA. Genetic Analysis of Rubella Viruses Found in the United States between 1966 and 2004: Evidence that Indigenous Rubella Viruses Have Been Eliminated. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2006; 43, Suppl 3:S133-40.
• World Health Organization. 2005. Standardization of the nomenclature for genetic characteristics of wild- type rubella viruses. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 80: 126-32.
• Zheng D-P, Zhu H, Gerna G, Frey TK. Phylogenetic analysis of rubella virus isolated during a period of epidemic transmission in Italy, 1991-1997. J Infect Dis 2003;187:1587-97.
• Hofmann J, Renz M, Meyer S, von Haeseler A, Liebert UG. Phylogenetic analysis of rubella virus including new genotype I. Virus Res 2003;96:123-8.
• Donadio FF, Siqueira MM, Vyse A, Jin L, Oliveira SA. The genomic analysis of rubella virus detected from outbreak and sporadic cases in Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. J Clin Virol 2002;27:205-9.
• Frey TK, Abernathy ES, Bosma TJ, et al. Molecular analysis of rubella virus epidemiology across three continents, North America, Europe, and Asia, 1961-1997. J Infect Dis 1998;178:642-50.

Laboratory Methods

• Isaac B, Zucker J, Giancotti F, Abernathy E, Icenogle J, Rakeman J, Rosen J. Rubella Surveillance and Diagnostic Testing Among a Low-Prevalence Population, New York City, 2012-2013.  Clinical and Vaccine Immunology. 2017. 24:1-8.
• Abernathy E, Cabezas C, Sun H, Zheng Q, Chen MH, Castillo-Solorzano C, Ortiz AC, Osores F, Oliveira L, Whittembury A, Andrus JK, Helfand RF, Icenogle J. Confirmation of rubella within 4 days of rash onset: comparison of rubella virus RNA detection in oral fluid with immunoglobulin M detection in serum or oral fluid. J Clin Microbiol. 2009; 47(1): 182-8.
• Zheng Q, Abernathy ES, Sun H, Zhen Z, de Filippis A, Akoua-Koffi C, Ahmed H, Morris-Glasgow V, Quist-Therson M, Icenogle JP. Genotyping of rubella virus RNA in sera and dried blood spots collected during routine surveillance and in archival sera. J Virol Meth. 2013; 187(2):284-7.
• Best JM, O’Shea S, Tipples G, et al. Interpretation of rubella serology in pregnancy—pitfalls and problems. BMJ 2002;325:147-8.
• Enders G. Serologic test combinations for safe detection of rubella infections. Rev Infect Dis 1985;7(Suppl);S113-22.