Protecting Workers Exposed to Lead-based Paint Hazards
A Report to Congress
 

DHHS (NIOSH) PUBLICATION NO. 98-112
JANUARY 1997

Chapter 2 (continued)
NIOSH SURVEILLANCE, INTERVENTIONS, AND EVALUATIONS

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Identifying Hazardous Lead Exposures with Other Data Sources

NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluations

Over the past 25 years, NIOSH has responded to HHE requests from employers, employees, and authorized representatives of employees, and to technical assistance requests from federal, state, and local agencies. The requesters ask NIOSH to determine whether chemical, biological, or physical agents, used or found in the workplace, are hazardous. Many of the HHE requests have concerned lead exposures. The HHEs are conducted pursuant to Section 20(a)(6) of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (PL 91–596) and NIOSH regulations (42 CFR Part 85).

HHE requests do not necessarily result in NIOSH site investigations. In many cases, NIOSH technical experts provide information to requesters via phone or correspondence. Site investigations generally occur when more extensive NIOSH involvement is warranted. NIOSH site investigations result in written reports, either as a letter or a published final report. Published final reports are usually done when the results are potentially of general interest, or when a new or emerging health hazard is documented. Published reports are available from NIOSH and the National Technical Information Service; abstracts of NIOSH reports are available in NIOSHTIC®, a searchable NIOSH database published in CD-ROM format.

Between 1978 (the date of the first OSHA lead standard) and 1995, 337 lead-related HHE investigations were completed, and 179 resulted in a NIOSH final report.[From the Hazard Evaluations and Technical Assistance Branch internal database of closed HHEs.] A peak in the distribution of lead-related final reports occurred in 1979 after promulgation of OSHA's 1978 Lead Standard for General Industry, and another peak occurred in 1991 after publication of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Interim Guidelines for Lead-Based Paint Abatement in Public and Indian Housing¹⁵. Forty-nine (27 percent) of the lead-related HHEs that resulted in final reports, conducted between 1978 and 1995, contained a positive determination of lead exposure, including worker BLL data. [Citations for these reports were obtained by searching NIOSHTIC® using the key words: HETA, lead, and blood lead level.]

Of the 49 HHE final reports with BLL data, 31 different four-digit SIC codes were represented. The HHEs are ranked in descending order by average BLL in Table 2.5. Since 1978, HHEs in the construction industry, specifically during maintenance or repainting of steel structures coated with LBP, have been among those measuring the highest worker BLLs. The highest average worker BLLs (for HHEs completed from 1978 to 1995) were reported for the following industries: battery reclamation (66 µg/dL); storage battery manufacturing (64 and 41 µg/dL for two studies); bridge, tunnel, and elevated-highway construction (50 µg/dL); gold ores (42 µg/dL); nonferrous foundry (41 µg/dL); and shipbuilding and repair (38 µg/dL). Forty-two of the 49 HHE investigations (86 percent) reported BLLs greater than or equal to 25 µg/dL.

From 1978 to the present, OSHA compliance inspections and NIOSH HHEs have occurred in a wide array of industries where workers are exposed to lead. Both programs have identified high-risk industries for lead exposure. In 1990, Froines et al. analyzed airborne lead exposure data from 3,884 OSHA compliance inspections conducted between 1979–1985¹⁶. The authors reported that there were 46 four-digit SIC codes for which more than a third of the OSHA inspections measured airborne lead exposures greater than the PEL. The 46 industries, ranked by percent of measured exposures over the PEL, are listed in Table 2.6. Comparing these SIC codes with the SIC codes from the list of lead-related HHEs (Table 2.5), there was little overlap; 80 percent of the SIC codes were different¹⁶.

Since the NIOSH and OSHA programs have a very different purpose, it is not surprising that different industries were identified. NIOSH HHEs result from employee and employer requests, whereas OSHA compliance inspections often result from OSHA's targeted emphasis programs in addition to employee complaints. Additionally, and equally important, the NIOSH ranking was based on average BLL whereas the Froines et al. ranking was based on airborne lead exposures. In many cases, there is little correlation between airborne exposures and worker BLLs because personal protective equipment is used. Finally, some discrepancies in the SIC codes may have occurred due to improper classification by either NIOSH or OSHA investigators.

HUD Lead-Based Paint Program

Amendments to the Lead-based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act in 1987 and 1988 required HUD to perform a LBP abatement demonstration program, the primary objective of which was to demonstrate various abatement methods and their relative cost-effectiveness. At the request of HUD, NIOSH evaluated worker protection measures and lead exposures during the HUD demonstration project in 1989 and 1990. A NIOSH report with findings and recommendations was published in 1992.⁶ One of the NIOSH recommendations was that HUD collect and compile worker BLL data for HUD-funded work. This surveillance data, if collected, could be used by NIOSH to supplement the ABLES program.

Due to the initiatives in Title X, HUD's lead poisoning prevention program has grown considerably in the 1990s. Through FY96, HUD has provided grants totaling $335.6 million to states and local governments for LBP hazard reduction in private housing.

In 1995, NIOSH initiated a study to determine the magnitude and variability of lead exposures and the potential for take-home lead problems among lead abatement workers employed by HUD grantees. Two field surveys were done in Oakland, California, in collaboration with the California Department of Health Services in 1995. HUD and local requirements for worker protection were closely followed at both survey sites. Additional data are being collected in Rhode Island and a location in another state is planned.

RECOMMENDATIONS

State surveillance programs should be expanded to all states. Surveillance programs can identify workers exposed to LBP hazards, help identify high-risk workplaces, and enable states to conduct follow-up investigations where needed. Research and education are needed to address the special problems of the many small businesses involved in LBP activities to develop low-cost controls and reduce worker lead exposures and environmental releases of lead.

Table 2.5 NIOSH HHE Final Reports with BLL Data, 1978-1995, Ranked by Average BLL
Industry	SIC Code	NIOSH Report No.¶	No. of workers tested	Blood lead levels
				Range (µg/dL)	Average(µg/dL)
Scrap and waste materials	5093	91-213-2123	15	9-86	66
Storage batteries	3691	87-371-1989	32	28-86	64
Bridge, tunnel and elevated-highway construction	1622	80-099-859	32	25-96	50
Gold ores	1041	89-213-1992	11	23-65	42
Nonferrous foundries (castings)	3362	88-244-1951	18	10-67	41
Storage batteries	3691	91-077-2160	43	12-66	41
Shipbuilding and repairing	3731	85-132-1598	10	25-53	38
Gold ores	1041	89-052-2006	6	13-55	37
Bridge, tunnel and elevated-highway construction	1622	91-006-2193	11	9-61	34
Heavy construction, not elsewhere classified	1629	91-209-2249	6	15-44	34
Fabricated plate work	3443	91-290-2131	17	11-77	34
Motor vehicle parts and accessories	3714	89-231-2016	2	30-37	34
Primary smelting and refining of nonferrous metals,except copper	3339	81-036-1023	3	26-37	32
Fabricated plate work	3443	91-393-2171	9	10-51	32
Motor vehicle parts and accessories	3714	89-234-2014	7	17-64	32
Motor vehicle parts and accessories	3714	83-459-1465	14	N/R*	31
Fabricated metal products, not elsewhere classified	3499	87-262-1852	3	25-43	31
Industrial inorganic chemicals	2810	80-116-1034	97	N/R-69	30
Secondary smelting and refining of nonferrous metals	3342	89-295-2007	12	5-63	29
Storage batteries	3691	84-041-1529	289	N/R	29
Motor vehicle parts and accessories	3714	89-232-2015	6	14-41	26
Inorganic pigments	2816	81-356-1183	70	N/R	26
Motor vehicle parts and accessories	3714	88-354-1955	10	8-44	24
Motor vehicle parts and accessories (radiators)	3714	81-039-1104	66	11-52	23
Tanks, metal-plate: lined	3443	91-290-2174	22	4-38	23
Motor vehicles parts and accessories	3714	89-233-2013	4	11-33	21
Copper foundries	3366	91-092-2190	10	10-39	21
Electric Services	4911	90-075-2298	43	< 5-43	20
Scrap and waste materials	5093	93-0739-2364	17	4-40	20
Pressed and blown glass and glassware	3229	84-384-1580	12	2-36	20
Electronic components, not elsewhere classified	3679	93-0955-2390	7	9-27	19
Stained glass artists	8999	86-348-1756	3	7-33	19
Primary smelting and refining of nonferrous metals, except copper	3339	94-0109-2494	15	15-54	19
Steel works, blast furnaces (including coke)	3312	89-139-2025	22	N/R	18
Industrial valves	3491	88-357-2042	25	< 20-33	15
Pressed and blown glass and glassware	3229	86-070-1774	8	4-33	13
Leaded glass, made from purchased glass	3231	91-076-2164	18	< 10-24†	12
Primary smelting and refining of copper	3331	84-038-1513	49	0-24	11
Steel works, blast furnaces (including coke)	3312	80-115-1401	79	1-33	11
General contractors-industrial buildings and warehouses	1541	89-252,293-2178	16	3-21	10
Police protection	9221	89-295-2007	8	3-13	8
Motor vehicle parts and accessories	3714	87-126-2019	28	< 5-43	8
General contractors-single-family homes	1521	90-070-2181	964	N/R - 27 ‡	6
Stained glass artists	8999	92-0029-2329	2	2	2
Gold ores, assay lab	1041	89-196-2023	2	N/R - <  40	N/R
Nitrogenous fertilizers	2873	91-073-2165	13	4-13	N/R
Valves and pipe fittings, not elsewhere classified	3494	81-426-1062	2	N/R - <  30	N/R
Motor vehicle parts and accessories	3714	86-087-1686	5	N/R- < 29 (2) 40 - 60 (3)	N/R
Commercial testing laboratories	7397	86-438-1795	10	> 17-192	N/R
¶ The first two digits of the report number are the publication year. * N/R = not reported. † Bold text indicates the HHE found no worker BLLs 25 µg/dL. ‡ Of 288 workers, only 96 (33%) received follow-up BLL testing.

Table 2.6 Airborne Lead Data from 1979-1985 OSHA Inspections for 46 Industries, ranked by Exposure

1. Thaker SB, Berkelman RL [1992]. History of public health surveillance. In: Halperin and EL Baker, Jr. eds. Public health surveillance. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, pp. 1–15.

2. Herberg S [1992]. Introduction to occupational epidemiology. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers, p. 6.

3. CDC [1992]. Surveillance of elevated blood lead levels among adults—United States, 1992. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR 41(17):285–288.

4. CDC [1992]. Surveillance of elevated blood lead levels among adults—United States, 1992. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR 41(17):285–288.

5. Brody DJ, Pirkle JL, Kramer RA, Flegal KM, Matte TD, Gunter EW, Paschal DC [1994]. Blood lead levels in the U.S. population—Phase 1 of the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III, 1988 to 1991). JAMA 272(4):277–283.

6. NIOSH [1992]. Health hazard evaluation report: HUD lead-based paint abatement demonstration project. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Report No. HETA 90–070–2181.

7. NIOSH [1992]. Health hazard evaluation report: M & J Painting Company. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Report No. HETA 91–006–2193.

8. CDC [1993]. Lead poisoning in bridge demolition workers—Georgia, 1992. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR 42(20):388–390.

9. Payne SF, Materna BL, Soluaga LC, Bertoni ML, Osoria AM [1995]. California data suggest poor compliance with blood lead testing requirement in construction. Berkeley, CA: Abstract for presentation at Society for Occupational and Environmental Health conference, Washington, DC, December (unpublished).

10. NIOSH [1991]. NIOSH Alert: request for assistance in preventing lead poisoning in construction workers. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 91–116.

11. Rabin R, Brooks DR, Davis LK [1994]. Elevated blood lead levels among construction workers in the Massachusetts occupational lead registry. AJPH 84(9):1483–1485.

12. SHARP [1995]. Exposure assessment among residential painters occupationally exposed to lead. Olympia, WA: Safety and Health Assessment and Research for Prevention, State of Washington Department of Labor and Industries. Technical report number 37–1–1995.

13. Hammond SK, Maurer KF, Heyman ML, Dupuy CJ [1994]. Developing a method for monitoring compliance with contract specifications on bridge sites to reduce lead poisoning among construction workers. Hartford, CT: Unpublished report to NIOSH from the State of Connecticut Department of Public Health and Addiction Services, Division of Environmental Epidemiology and Occupational Health, Occupational Health Surveillance Program. NIOSH Requisition No. 93391VMO, December 30, 1994.

14. CDC [1995]. Controlling lead toxicity in bridge workers—Connecticut, 1991–1994. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR 44(4):76–79.

15. HUD [1990]. Lead-based paint: Interim guidelines for hazard identification and abatement in public and Indian housing. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Public and Indian Housing.

16. Froines JR, Baron S, Wegman D, O'Rourke S [1990]. Characterization of the airborne concentrations of lead in U.S. industry. Am J Ind Med 18:1–17.

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